diff --git a/mkdocs.yml b/mkdocs.yml index a588325568fbcafe4f532fc01e63ae824d2d6015..09bcd2f03bde7e44f627f433e58d39f5402eee3f 100644 --- a/mkdocs.yml +++ b/mkdocs.yml @@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ site_description: | Lecture notes for TN3105 - Mathematics for Quantum Physics nav: - Intro: 'index.md' - + - Coordinates: 'coordinates.md' + theme: name: material custom_dir: theme diff --git a/src/1_complex_numbers.md b/src/1_complex_numbers.md index 725c1ab992c2a1016012a6590357653756845712..3351552810b1eac582afee1a7d417090e7b62c9d 100644 --- a/src/1_complex_numbers.md +++ b/src/1_complex_numbers.md @@ -67,10 +67,7 @@ Complex numbers can be rendered on a two-dimensional (2D) plane, the horizontal, which represents the real number 1, whereas the vertical unit vector represents ${\rm i}$. - - -[\ -]{} + Note that the norm of $z$ is the length of this vector. @@ -80,10 +77,7 @@ Addition in the complex plane Adding two numbers in the complex plane corresponds to adding the horizontal and vertical components: - - -[\ -]{} + We see that the sum is found as the diagonal of a parallelogram spanned by the two numbers. @@ -99,10 +93,7 @@ part. However, it is also possible to characterize that vector by its *length* and *direction*, where the latter can be represented by the angle the vector makes with the horizontal axis: - - -[\ -]{} + The angle with the horizontal axis is denoted by $\varphi$, just as in the case of polar coordinates. In the context of complex numbers, this @@ -168,17 +159,13 @@ should be independent of $dz=dx + {\rm i} dy$! Thus, $f(z)$ is differentiable only when $$\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + {\rm i} \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} = -{\rm i} \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial v}{\partial y}.$$ Equating the real and imaginary parts of the left and right hand side we -obtain the - -TODO: Here was a remark environment - -[ *Cauchy Riemann* differential equations: +obtain the *Cauchy Riemann* differential equations: $$\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} {~~~ \rm and ~~~ } \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} = - \frac{\partial u}{\partial y}.$$ The derivative is then given as $$\frac{df}{dz} = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + {\rm i} \frac{\partial v}{\partial x}.$$ A complex function whose real and imaginary part ($u$ and $v$) obey the Cauchy-Riemann differential equations in a point $z$, is complex -differentiable at the point $z$. ]{} +differentiable at the point $z$. Note that differentiability is a property which not only pertains to a function, but also to a point. @@ -296,8 +283,6 @@ $$\tanh'(x) = 1 + \frac{\sinh^2 x}{\cosh^2 (x)} = - \frac{1}{\cosh^2(x)}.$$ Summary ======= -TODO: Here was the beginning of a mdframed env - - A complex number $z$ has the form $$z = a + b \rm i$$ where $a$ and $b$ are both real, and $\rm i^2 = 1$. The real number $a$ is called the *real part* of $z$ and $b$ is the *imaginary part*. Two complex @@ -345,22 +330,21 @@ TODO: Here was the beginning of a mdframed env - Hyperbolic functions are defined as: $$\sinh(z) = \frac{e^{z} - e^{-z}}{2}; \phantom{xxx} \cosh(z) = \frac{e^{z} + e^{-z}}{2}.$$ -TODO: Here was the end of a mdframed env Problems ======== -1. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Given $a=1+2\rm i$ and $b=4-2\rm i$, draw in the +1. [:grinning:] Given $a=1+2\rm i$ and $b=4-2\rm i$, draw in the complex plane the numbers $a+b$, $a-b$, $ab$, $a/b$, $e^a$ and $\ln(a)$. -2. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Evaluate (i) $\rm i^{1/4}$, (ii) +2. [:grinning:] Evaluate (i) $\rm i^{1/4}$, (ii) $\left(-1+\rm i \sqrt{3}\right)^{1/2}$, (iii) $\exp(2\rm i^3)$. -3. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Evaluate $$\left| \frac{a+b\rm i}{a-b\rm i} \right|$$ +3. [:grinning:] Evaluate $$\left| \frac{a+b\rm i}{a-b\rm i} \right|$$ for real $a$ and $b$. -4. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Show that $\cos x = \cosh(\rm i x)$ and +4. [:grinning:] Show that $\cos x = \cosh(\rm i x)$ and $\cos(\rm i x) = \cosh x$. Derive similar relations for $\sinh$ and $\sin$. @@ -369,28 +353,28 @@ Problems Also show that $\cosh x$ is a solution to the differential equation $$y'' = \sqrt{1 + y'^2}.$$ -5. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Calculate the real part of +5. [:grinning:] Calculate the real part of $\int_0^\infty e^{-\gamma t +\rm i \omega t} dt$ ($\omega$ and $\gamma$ are real; $\gamma$ is positive). -6. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Is the function $f(z) = |z| = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}$ +6. [:grinning:] Is the function $f(z) = |z| = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}$ analytic on the complex plane or not? If not, where is the function not analytic? -7. [\[]{}D1[\]]{} Show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations imply that the +7. [:grinning:] Show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations imply that the real and imaginary part of a differentiable complex function both represent solutions to the Laplace equation, i.e. $$\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial y^2} = 0,$$ for the real part $u$ of the function, and similarly for the imaginary part $v$. -8. [\[]{}D3[\]]{} Show that the set of points $z$ obeying +8. [:sweat:] Show that the set of points $z$ obeying $$| z - \rm i a| = \lambda |z + \rm i a|,$$ with $a$ and $\lambda$ real, form a circle with radius $2|\lambda/(1-\lambda^2) a|$ centered on the point $\rm i a (1+\lambda^2)/(1-\lambda^2)$, provided $\lambda \neq 1$. What is the set like for $\lambda = 1$? -9. [\[]{}D2[\]]{} In two dimensions, the Coulomb potential is +9. [:smirk:] In two dimensions, the Coulomb potential is proportional to $\log |r|$. Viewing the 2D space as a complex plane, this is $\log |z|$. Consider a system consisting of charges $q_i$ placed at ‘positions’ $z_i$, all close to the origin. The point $z$ @@ -406,7 +390,7 @@ Problems This is called a *multipole expansion*. A similar expansion exist in three dimensions. -10. [\[]{}D2[\]]{} In this problem, we consider the function $1/z$ close +10. [:smirk:] In this problem, we consider the function $1/z$ close to the real axis: $z=x-\rm i \epsilon$ where $\epsilon$ is small. Show that the imaginary part of this function approaches $\pi$ times the Dirac delta-function $\delta(x)$ for $\epsilon\rightarrow 0$. Do diff --git a/src/coordinates.md b/src/coordinates.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..df6740eed106acbba98a4dbef5f6007da1dc658b --- /dev/null +++ b/src/coordinates.md @@ -0,0 +1,392 @@ +--- +title: Coordinates +--- + +# Cartesian coordinates + +The most common coordinates are *Cartesian coordinates*, where we use a +number $n$ of perpendicular axes. The coordinates corresponding to these +axes are $x_j$ where $j=1, \ldots, n$. + +Cartesian coordinates are simple, as the coordinate axis are simply +straight lines and perpendicular to each other. Due to this, it is +very easy to do calculations in Cartesian coordinates. For example, +the distance $\Delta s$ between two points $(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n)$ +and $(x'_1, x'_2, \ldots, x'_n)$ is easily computed as + +$$\Delta s^2 = (x'_1 - x_1)^2 + (x'_2 - x_2)^2 + \ldots + (x'_n - x_n)^2.$$ + +(A space with such a distance definition is called a *Euclidean +space*.) + +In mathematics, we are often dealing with so-called *infinitesimally* small +distances, for example in the definition of derivatives and integrals. +In Cartesion coordinates the expressions for infinitesimal distances $ds$ and +infinitesimal volumes $dV$ are given as + +$$ds = \sqrt{dx_1^2 + dx_2^2 + \ldots + dx_n^2}$$ + +and + +$$dV = dx_1 dx_2 \ldots dx_N.$$ + +The formula for $dV$ also indicates that in Cartesian coordinates, the integral +over a volume can be expressed as individual integrals over all coordinate directions: +$\int dV = \idotsint dx_1 dx_2 \ldots dx_N$. + +Cartesian coordinates are used a lot. They are particularly suitable for +infinite spaces or for rectangular volumes. + + + + +# Polar coordinates + +## Definition + +It often turns out useful to change to a different type of coordinate +system. For example, if you want to describe the vibrations of a +circular drum, polar coordinates turn out very convenient. These are +defined for a two-dimensional space (a plane). When using such +coordinates, a position on the plane is characterised by two +coordinates: the *distance* $r$ from the point to the origin and the +angle ($\varphi$). This is the angle between the line connecting the +point to the origin and the $x$-axis. + +Note that each Cartesian coordinate has a *dimension* of length; in +polar coordinates, the radius $r$ has a dimension of *length*, whereas +the angular coordinate $\varphi$ is dimensionless. + + + +In this plot you can distinguish the radial coordinate (0.2, 0.4 etc.) +from the angular one ($0^\circ$, $45^\circ$ etc.). + +The plot below shows a point on a curve with the polar coordinates +$(r,\varphi)$ indicated. From this, we can see that the *Cartesian* +coordinates $(x,y)$ of the point are related to the polar ones as +follows: + +$$\begin{equation} x = r \cos\varphi; \end{equation}$$ +$$\begin{equation} y = r \sin \varphi.\end{equation}$$ + + + +The inverse relation is given as + +$$\begin{equation} r=\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}; \label{rxy}\end{equation}$$ +$$\begin{equation} \varphi=\begin{cases} + \arctan(y/x) & \text{$x>0$,}\\ + \pi + \arctan(y/x) & \text{$x<0$ and $y>0$,}\\ + -\pi + \arctan(y/x) & \text{$x<0$ and $y<0$.} + \end{cases} \label{phixy}\end{equation}$$ + +The last formula for $\varphi$ warrants a closer explanation: It is easy +to see that $\tan(\varphi)=y/x$ - but this is not a unique relation, due to +the fact that the $\tan$ has different branches. Convince yourself that +the expression above is correct for all the four sectors! + +## Distances and areas + +Now suppose we want to calculate the distance between two points, one +with polar coordinates $(r_1, \varphi_1)$, and the other with +$(r_2, \varphi_2)$. This looks like a difficult exercise. One possible +way to perform this is by translating the polar coordinates into +Cartesian coordinates and using the expression given above for this +distance: $$\Delta s^2 = (x_1 - x_2)^2 + (y_1 - y_2)^2,$$ so +$$\Delta s^2 = (r_1\cos\varphi_1 - r_2 \cos \varphi_2)^2 + (r_1\sin\varphi_1 - r_2 \sin \varphi_2)^2$$ +which is not a very convenient expression. + +If we consider two points which are *very close*, the analysis +simplifies however. We can use the geometry of the problem to find the +distance (see the figure below). + + + +When going from point 1 to point 2, we first traverse a small circular +arc of radius $r_1$ and then we move a small distance radially outward +from $r_1$ to $r_2$. Provided the difference between the angles +$\varphi_1$ and $\varphi_2$ is (very) small, these paths are +approximately perpendicular and we can use Pythagoras’ theorem to find +the distance $d s$. Note that the arc is approximately straight – +it has a length $r_1 d \varphi$, where +$d \varphi = \varphi_2-\varphi_1$. So we have: +$$d s^2 = (d r)^2 + (arc~length)^2 = (d r)^2 + r_1^2 (d \varphi)^2 .$$ + +We can use the same arguments also for the area: since the different +segments are approximately perpendicular, we find the area by simply +multiplying them: + +$$dA = r dr d\varphi.$$ + +This is an important formula to remember for integrating in polar +coordinates! The extra $r$ that appears here can be intuitively +understood: the area swept by an angle difference $d\varphi$ +*increases* as we move further away from the origin. + +!!! check "Example: Integrating over a circular area" + To check the area element we just derived, let us compute a simple + integral. We compute the integral over a circle with radius $r_0$ + with a very simple function that equals to $1$. In this case, + we expect to get as a result the are of the region we integrate over. + + We find: + + $$ + \int_0^{2\pi} d\varphi \int_0^{r_0} r dr =\\ + 2\pi \int_0^{r_0} r dr = 2 \pi \frac{1}{2} r_0^2 = \pi r_0^2, + $$ + + which is indeed the area of a circle with radius 0. + +## Converting derivatives between coordinate systems + +Often, in physics important equations involve derivatives given in terms +of Cartesian coordinates. One prominent example are equations of the form +$$\left(\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2}\right) +f(x, y) = \ldots.$$ +The derivative operator $\left(\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + +\frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2}\right)$ is so common it has its own name: +the Laplacian (here for two-dimensional space). + +Such an equation is universal, but for particular situations it might be +advantageous to use a different coordinate system, such as polar coordinates +for a system with rotational symmetry. The question then is: How does the +corresponding equation look like in a different coordinate system? + +There are different ways to find the answer. Here, we will focus on +directly deriving the transformed equation through an explicit calculation +involving the chain rule for a function of several variables. + +!!! info Chain rule for a multi-variable function + Let $f$ be a function of $n$ variables: $f(y_1, y_2, \ldots, y_n)$, + as well as $g_i(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n)$ for $i=1,2,\ldots, n$. Then + + $$\frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} = \sum_{j=1}^n + \frac{\partial f}{\partial y_j} \frac{\partial g_j}{\partial x_i}$$ + +We start by replacing the function $f(x, y)$ by a function in polar coordinates +$f(r, \varphi)$, and ask what is $\frac{\partial}{\partial x} f(r, \varphi)$. When +we look at this expression, we need to understand what it *means* to take the derivative +of a function of $r, \varphi$ in terms of $x$? + +For this, we need to realize that there are relations between the coordinate systems. +In particular, $r = r(x,y)$ and $\varphi = \varphi(x, y)$ as defined in equations +\ref{rxy} and \ref{phixy}. In fact, we have been rather sloppy in our notation above, +as the functions $f(x,y)$ and $f(r, \varphi)$ do not mean that I substitute $x=r$ +and $y=\varphi$! It is more precise to state that there are two diferent +functions $f_\text{cart}(x,y)$ and $f_\text{polar}(r, \varphi)$ that are equivalent, +in the sense that + +$$f_\text{cart}(x, y) = f_\text{polar}(r(x,y), \varphi(x,y))$$ + +In physics, we usually never write this down explicitly, but we are aware that these +are two different functions from the fact that they use different coordinates. + +With this information, we can now apply the chain rule: + +$$ \frac{\partial}{\partial x} f(r, \varphi) = +\frac{\partial f}{\partial r} \frac{\partial r(x, y)}{\partial x} + +\frac{\partial f}{\partial \varphi} \frac{\partial \varphi(x,y)}{\partial x} +$$ + +and it is now a matter of (tedious) calculus to arrive at the right result. +This is the task of exercises 3 and 4, which finally compute the Laplacian +in polar coordinates. + +!!! warning Inverse function theorem + In this calculation one might be tempted to use the inverse + function theorem to compute derivatives like + $\frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial x}$ from the much simpler + $\frac{\partial x}{\partial \varphi}$. Note though that here we + are dealing with functions depending on several variables, so the + *Jacobian* has to be used (see [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function_theorem)). A direct calculation is in this particular case more easy. + +Note that this procedure also carries over to other coordinate systems, +although the calculations can become quite tedious. In these cases, +it's usually best to look up the correct form. + + +# Cylindrical coordinates + +Three dimensional systems may have axial symmetry. An example is an +electrically charged wire of which we would like to calculate the +electric field, or a current-carrying wire for which we would like to +calculate the magnetic field. For such problems the most convenient +coordinates are *cylindrical coordinates*. For convenience, we choose +the symmetry-axis as the $z$-axis. Note that this can be done as we can +choose the coordinate system ourselves - this is not imposed by the +problem. + +Cylindrical coordinates are defined straightforwardly: we use polar +coordinates $r$ and $\varphi$ in the $xy$ plane, and the distance $z$ +along the symmetry-axis as the third coordinate. If the axis system is +chosen in physical space, we have two coordinates which have the +dimension of a distance: $r$ and $z$. The other coordinate, +$\varphi$, is of course dimensionless. + +What is the distance travelled along a path when we express this in +cylindrical coordinates? Let’s consider an example (Figure). + + + +We want to find the length of the (small) red segment $d s$. By +inspecting the figure, we see that the horizontal (i.e. parallel to the +$xy$-plane) segment $d l$ is perpendicular to the vertical segment +$dz$. Using for $d l$ the length we obtained before for a line +segment in the $xy$ plane, expressed in polar coordinates, we +immediately find: +$$d s^2 = d l^2 + d z^2 = d r^2 + r^2 d \varphi^2 + d z^2.$$ +The volume element is consequently given as +$$dV = r dr d\varphi dz.$$ + +# Spherical coordinates + +For problems with spherical symmetry, we use *spherical coordinates*. +These work as follows. For a point $\bf r$ in 3D space, we can specify +the position of that point by specifying its (1) distance to the origin +and (2) the direction of the line connecting the origin to our point. +The specification of this direction can be identified with a point on a +sphere which is centered at the origin: + + + +The position of a point on the sphere is specified using the two angles +$\theta$ and $\phi$ indicated in the figure. + +!!! warning + Note that in mathematics, often the angles are labelled the other way + round: there, $\phi$ is used for the angle between a line running from + the origin o the point of interest and the $z$-axis, and $\theta$ for + the angle of the projection of that line with the $x$-axis. The + convention used here is custom in physics. + +The relation between Cartesian and coordinates is defined by +$$x = r \cos \varphi \sin \vartheta$$ +$$y = r \sin\varphi \sin \vartheta$$ $$z = r \cos\vartheta$$ The inverse +transformation is easy to find: $$r = \sqrt{x^2+y^2+z^2}$$ +$$\theta = \arccos(z/\sqrt{x^2+y^2+z^2})$$ +$$\phi = \begin{cases} \arctan(y/x) &{\rm for ~} x>0; \\ + \pi + \arctan(y/x) & {\rm for ~} x<0 {\rm ~ and ~} y>0;\\ + -\pi + \arctan(y/x) &{\rm ~ for ~} x<0 {\rm ~ and ~} y<0. + \end{cases}$$ These relations can be derived from the following figure: + + + +The distance related to a change in the spherical coordinates is +calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem. The length $ds$ of a short segment +on the sphere with radius $r$ corresponding to changes in the polar +angles of $d\vartheta$ and $d\varphi$ is given as +$$dl^2 = r^2 \left(\sin^2 \vartheta d\varphi^2 + d\vartheta^2\right).$$ +In order to verify this, it is important to realize that all points with +*the same* coordinate $\vartheta$ span a circle in a horizontal plane +with a radius $r\sin\vartheta$ as shown in the figure below. + +From this we can also infer that, for a segment with a radial component +$dr$ in addition to the displacement on the sphere, the displacement is: +$$ds^2 = r^2 \left(\sin^2 \vartheta d\varphi^2 + d\vartheta^2\right) + dr^2.$$ + +The picture below shows the geometry behind the calculation of this +displacement. + + + +From these arguments we can again also find the volume element, it is +here given as +$$dV = r^2 \sin\theta dr d\theta d\varphi.$$ + +### summary + +We have discussed four different coordinate systems: + +1. *Cartesian coordinates*: $${\bf r} = (x_1, \ldots, x_n).$$ Can be + used for any dimension $n$. Convenient for: infinite spaces, systems + with rectangular symmatry. + + Distance between two points ${\bf r} = (x_1, \ldots, x_n)$ and + ${\bf r}' = (x'_1, \ldots, x'_n)$: + $$\Delta s^2 = (x'_1 - x_1)^2 + (x'_2 - x_2)^2 + \ldots + (x'_n - x_n)^2.$$ + +2. *Polar coordinates*: $${\bf r} = (r, \phi).$$ Can be used in two + dimensions. Suitable for systems with circular symmetry or functions + given in terms of these coordinates. + + Infinitesimal distance: $$ds^2 = dr^2 + r^2 d\phi^2.$$ + Infinitesimal area: $$dA = r dr d\varphi.$$ + +3. *Cylindrical coordinates*: $${\bf r} = (r, \phi, z).$$ Can be + used in three dimensions. Suitable for systems with axial symmetry + or functions given in terms of these coordinates. + + Infinitesimal distance: $$ds^2 = dr^2 + r^2 d\phi^2 + dz^2.$$ + Infinitesimal volume:: $$dV = r dr d\varphi dz.$$ + +4. *Spherical coordinates*: $${\bf r} = (r, \theta, \phi).$$ Can be + used in three dimensions. Suitable for systems with spherical + symmetry or functions given in terms of these coordinates. + + Infinitesimal distance: + $$ds^2 =r^2 (\sin^2 \theta d\phi^2 + d\theta^2) + dr^2 .$$ + Infinitesimal volume: + $$dV = r^2 \sin(\theta) dr d\theta d\varphi.$$ + +Problems +======== + +1. [:grinning:] + + 1. Find the polar coordinates of the point with Cartesian + coordinates $${\bf r} = \sqrt{2} (1,1).$$ + + 2. Find the cylindrical coordinates of the point with Cartesian + coordinates $${\bf r} = \frac{3}{2} (\sqrt{3}, 1, 1).$$ + + 3. Find the spherical coordinates of the points + $${\bf r} = (3/2, \sqrt{3}/2, 1).$$ + +2. [:grinning:] *Geometry and different coordinate systems}* + + What geometric objects do the following boundary conditions describe? + + 1. $r<1$ in cylindrical coordinates, + 2. $\varphi=0$ in cylindrical coordinates, + 3. $r=1$ in spherical coordinates, + 4. $\theta = \pi/4$ in spherical coordinates, + 5. $r=1$ and $\theta=\pi/4$ in spherical coordinates. + +3. [:smirk:] From the transformation from polar to Cartesian + coordinates, show that + $$\frac{\partial}{\partial x} = \cos\varphi \frac{\partial}{\partial r} - \frac{\sin\varphi}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial \varphi}$$ + and + $$\frac{\partial}{\partial y} = \sin\varphi \frac{\partial}{\partial r} + \frac{\cos\varphi}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial \varphi}.$$ + (Use the chain rule for differentiation). + +3. [:sweat:] Using the result of problem 2, show that the Laplace + operator acting on a function $\psi({\bf r})$ in polar coordinates + takes the form + $$\nabla^2 \psi({\bf r}) =\left( \frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2}\right) \psi({\bf r}) = \frac{1}{r} \frac{\partial}{\partial r} \left( r \frac{\partial \psi(r,\varphi)}{\partial r} \right) + \frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial^2 \psi(r,\varphi)}{\partial \varphi^2}.$$ + + In a similar fashion it can be shown that for spherical coordinates, + the Laplace operator acting on a function $\psi({\bf r})$ becomes: + $$\nabla^2 \psi (r,\vartheta,\varphi) = + \frac{1}{r^2} \frac{\partial}{\partial r^2} \left( r^2 \frac{\partial \psi(r,\vartheta,\varphi)}{\partial r} \right) + \frac{1}{r^2\sin^2\vartheta} \frac{\partial^2 \psi(r,\vartheta, \varphi)}{\partial \varphi^2} + \frac{1}{r^2\sin\vartheta} + \frac{\partial}{\partial \vartheta}\left( \sin\vartheta \frac{\partial\psi(r,\vartheta, \varphi)}{\partial \vartheta}\right).$$ + This is however even more tedious (you do not have to show this). + +5. [:grinning:] *Integration and coordinates I* + + Compute the area of the spherical cap defined by $r=r_0$ and $\theta <\theta_0$. + +6. [:smirk:] *Integration and coordinates II* + + In 2D we can define a shape by specifying a function $r(\varphi)$: + +  + + (Of course, here we need to have $r(0) = r(2\pi)$.) + + Show that the area of this shape is given by + $$ + \int_0^{2\pi} \frac{1}{2}\left[r(\varphi)\right]^2 d\varphi + $$ + diff --git a/src/figures/Coordinates_11_0.svg b/src/figures/Coordinates_11_0.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..806d9562a13e561b74b6d8b4e8705189ab52306f --- /dev/null +++ b/src/figures/Coordinates_11_0.svg @@ -0,0 +1,810 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?> +<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> +<!-- Created with matplotlib (http://matplotlib.org/) --> +<svg height="251pt" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 375 251" width="375pt" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> + <defs> + <style type="text/css"> 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Throughout +the course we have directly quantum mechanics applications in mind, but at the +core this is still a math course. For this reason, applying what you learned +to examples and exercises is **crucial**! + +Each lecture note comes with an extensive set of exercises. Each exercise is labeled +according to difficulty: + +- [:grinning:] easy +- [:smirk:] intermediate +- [:sweat:] difficult In these notes our aim is to provide learning materials which are: